The Political, Feminist, and Religious view of Frances E.W. Harper, Phllis Wheatley, and Alice Dunbar-Nelson

Phillis Wheatley, Alice Dunbar-Nelson, and Francis E. W. Harper were all groundbreaking and poignant authors whose works have remained influential throughout time. Feminism, politics, and religion are three aspects evident in their personal lives an d literature.

Wheatley was considered a feminist icon because she was the first published African American female poet. However, her writing did not deal with feminist issues, rather, they focussed on religious and political themes. Unlike Wheatley, Harper's femi nist views are incorporated into her work. She uses religion as a method to express her political and social views. Dunbar-Nelson, a writer of all genres, brought together her personal beliefs and activism into many pieces of her work. Political and fe minist issues were important aspects of her personal life, which served as important themes throughout her literature. Religion, while not as prevalent, also presented itself, most specifically through her poetry.

BIOGRAPHY

Phillis Wheatley is the first published African American writer. She was born in 1753 in West Africa. She was kidnapped from Africa and sold as a slave when she was around seven or eight years old. She was purchased by a wealthy family that taught h er how to read and write. Wheatley showed great intelligence in her writing style.

Wheatley's book, The Collected Works of Phillis Wheatley was first published in London. Five years after her return from London her owners; Mr. and Mrs. Wheatley died. In 1778 Wheatley married John Peters and they had three children that all died ve ry young.

In 1779 Wheatley advertised a volume of thirty-three poems and thirteen letters in the "Boston Evening Post" and the "General Advertiser" in hopes of finding a publisher. Probably due to the poor post-revolutionary economy, this volume was never publi shed. After Wheatley's death John Peters, her husband, went to the house of a woman that. Wheatley used to live with and demanded the manuscripts for the second volume of works. Unfortunately these manuscripts disappeared with Peters never to be recover ed.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS

Phillis Wheatley's political poems have been largely ignored even though she lived in Boston and was a witness to many events that led to the revolution. Poems such as "To Samuel Quincy, Esq; a Panegyric," "To the King's Most Excellent Majesty," "To t he Right Honorable William, Earl of Dartmouth," "To His Excellency General Washington," and "Liberty and Peace" all describe political events and figures. Each poem dramatizes a decisive moment in America's struggle for independence. Wheatley writes a l ot of political praise poems, which means this, was probably a very important subject to her. Since Wheatley was a domestic female slave she was very bold to compose such commentaries which suggests that maybe an African tradition taught her that politic al praise was the most important to all poets (Robinson, 93).

Phillis Wheatley was a minority because of her race and her sex. In the eighteenth century woman writers were the visible minority and black-female writers were non existent. Male critics felt that there were to many female writers and that they wer e a threat to male dominance. The increase of female writing was due to the growth of primary education for an increased number of "leisured woman". Mrs. Wheatley, Phillis's mistress, was a wealthy "leisured woman" which is what gave her time to teach P hillis how to read and write.

Phillis Wheatley was a strong woman. When her intelligence was doubted she had to prove that her work was authentic of her poems by being examined by a group of influential white men (Shields). Wheatley's husband was poor and oftentimes left and her children to fend for themselves as he dodged creditors and tried to find work. Because of the family's poor conditions and the white racist world they were forced to move into an African-American boarding house. The foul conditions of the boarding hous e led to the death of her children and a drastic decline in her health.

Phillis Wheatley was a baptized member of "Old South Church" in Boston. Christianity was a very important theme to Wheatley. She emphasized that people of all races needed salvation. Her first published poem; "On Messrs. Hussey and Coffin" demonstr ates Wheatley's Christian spirituality. The piece was about two soldiers that barely escaped drowning and its theme was that they were saved by the grace of God alone. One of Wheatley's most famous pieces "On Being Brought from Africa" opens with:

'Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land, Taught my benighted soul to understand That there's a God, that there's a Savior too: Once I redemption neither sought nor knew. (Shields 18)

It is uncertain just how many poems Wheatley composed, estimates range from 55-145. Her last works are also unknown because she wrote some poems with the name Phillis Peters like "To Mr. and Mrs. ---, on the Death of Their Infant Son".

Biography

Frances E.W. Harper was born on September 24, 1825 in Baltimore Maryland to free parents. Her abolitionist uncle, William Watkins, raised Harper when her parents died. Watkins enrolled Harper in school and by 1845 she published her first volume of poe try Autumn Leaves. In 1860 she married Fenton Harper, but their marriage was short lived because Fenton died four years later. Harper was considered the top female poet of her time. Her work was admired for its political and social messages agai nst racism and oppression of blacks and women .

Critical Analysis

The years between 1865 and 1877 are commonly referred to as the Reconstruction Era. Authors during this time wanted their writing to reflect the attitude of the nation. People were tired of war and wanted to rebuild their lives and recover from the damage they suffered. These also included African American authors who chose to write stories that dealt with achievement, discipline, and courage (Foster 134). They hoped to "inspire other blacks, assuage the fears of some whites, and help revive the American Dream"(Foster 131). Black authors wanted to acknowledge the nations diversity but also affirm its unity.

One of the most famous African American writers associated with the Reconstruction Era was Frances E.W. Harper. Harper's writing dealt with contemporary issues such as racism and women's rights. She was an anti-slavery lecturer and a member of the Und erground Railroad (Foster 133). There are two themes that appear both in her Reconstruction lectures and writing. One was the need for the citizens to unite behind a common goal and put the needs of the group before the individual. Harper's other idea was that emancipation opened a whole era to women, especially black women (Foster 134). A perfect example of this combination of ideals is in her text Moses: A Story of the Nile. Harper uses Egyptian bondage as a metaphor for American slavery. S he chooses this story to show how the Bible condemns racial oppression (Foster 140-1). This contradicts the idea that God created an inferior race. Moses himself is a symbolic figure often used in African American Literature. Moses sacrifices his own per sonal pleasure in order to help his race. He refuses to except his individual freedom because it was denied to the other members of his race (Foster 137).

In her speeches, Harper compared African American heroine Harriet Tubman to Moses because like Moses, Tubman was born free but refused to enjoy her fortune while her people suffered. In a speech at the Eleventh Woman's Rights Convention on May 10, 18 66. Harper claimed, "We have a woman in our country who has received the name of 'Moses,' a woman who has gone down into the Egypt of slavery and brought out hundreds of our people into liberty (Foster 140). In later years, Harper became an extreme advocate for women's rights. She helped to form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Women in 1896 (Foster 134). You can begin to see her feminist attitude forming in Moses. Harper gives women a larger, more active part in the liberation of the Jews. It is through his mother's stories that Moses begins to identity with his race. The women in the story are represented as "strong, intelligent, and morally courageous" and suggests that Moses' " heroism was nurtured by their example" (Foster 136).

Harper used her writing to express her political and social views. She tried to educate the reader on the wrongs of oppression and racism. Harper used familiar religious stories like Moses in hope that people could identify with it. Her writi ng was view in many ways as propaganda piece against racism and discrimination of women. Harper's work influenced the opinions of both black and white readers during the Reconstruction Era.

Biography

Alice Dunbar-Nelson was an amazingly influential and groundbreaking author. She published her first piece, Violets and Other Tales, before she even turned twenty years of age. Although she aspired to write a lengthy novel, Dunbar-Nelson's sho rt works helped to create "a black short story tradition" (Hull xxxi).

Born in 1875 of a diverse ancestral background, Alice Ruth Moore had a fair complexion and reddish-blond hair. Her ability to "pass" allowed her into operas, bathing spas, and all of the "high culture" opportunities; unfortunately, this also caused p rejudices against darker-skinned African Americans and those less educated, which came through in some of her writings. She did, however, fight for many causes including her support for education and fight for equality. Ironically, none of Dunbar-Nelson' s heroines are African American. Many speculate that the reason for this is that there was a resistance from her to divulge too much of herself to the public and the lives of African American women may have been too personal to be fiction for her.

Alice Dunbar-Nelson was also a woman of many talents and occupations, ranging from teacher to campaign manager and executive secretary to newspaper columnist. She was influential through her published outcries and public speaking tours, crying for eq uality for women and African Americans. She was also influential through her magnificent writing and the strength and determination she showed in a time when she was making her own path.

Critical Analysis

Dunbar-Nelson's feminist platform greatly helped in the progression of women. Her establishment and support of the "Industrial School for Colored Girls" helped in furthering the education of young women. Her feminist opinions and involvement with pr ominent women's clubs also showed her commitment for equality. These ideas were also evident in her writings.

In her own way Dunbar-Nelson attacked the issues of sexism and women's roles. Both Elisabeth and The Locket depict issues women of the time may have been feeling. In the story of Elisabeth we see the title character struggling t o get by. Her despair and loneliness is illustrated in a very non-modern feminist manner:

I am too old to think about marrying, and too young to go to the poorhouse. Too ugly to be attractive, and not ugly enough to make a living in a sideshow...What a failure I am! (Hull 65)

We see a similar confusion in The Locket. We are shown what may have been available options for a single woman when a young woman joins the convent after losing her love. She is slightly torn by her yearning to reunite with him and her promis e to the sisterhood. Despite her initial ambivalence, the young nun chooses to go with her love rather than stay with the church.

In what is probably one of Dunbar-Nelson's most radical pieces, The Woman, presents the idea that professional, working women should remain single. In a most dramatic statement, the narrator asks, "Why should well-salaried women marry?"(Hull 2 2) This profound essay, promoting the notion of remaining single and not having children, was certainly revolutionary at the time.

Alice Dunbar-Nelson was also very involved with issues of racial equality and the politics that went along with such a concern. She was very active and vocal about a Delaware anti-lynching bill. In fact, Ms.Dunbar-Nelson wrote an essay entitled,P olitics In Delaware, in which she argues against the decisions of politicians and questions the state of Delaware's justice system. She notes the deliberate segregation practiced by the law and tells of such injustices and white men freed on charges of rape against African American women. Certainly such accusations were dangerous to make, but most importantly, Dunbar-Nelson helped to bring these facts into a public forum. She also explores the issue of race, and how it relates to politics and socie ty, in her essay, Brass Ankles Speaks. Here she examines how people of light skin, or those able to "pass," fit into society. Between being tormented at school for being too light and fired from a nice job because of being African American, Dunba r-Nelson displays an image of a very challenging and difficult world: ..."the 'Brass Ankles' must bear the hatred of their own and the prejudice of the white race" (Hall 321).

Finally there is the issue of religion. Throughout Ms. Dunbar-Nelson's poetry and essays, a religious theme can be seen. For example, in the previously examined, The Locket, there is a family battle between the Protestant and Catholic Churche s. We see the rebellious, youngest daughter of a rich woman convert to Catholicism and become a nun and the hateful reaction of her family. In the same light we are given a depiction of a Mother Superior who is heartless and strict. While this story do es not favor one side or the other, the important factor is that Dunbar-Nelson brings up this debate, in her love of disclosing differences. In addition, the author examines the profound relationships between Buddhism, Christianity, and Judaism in her pi ece, The Unknown Life of Jesus Christ. After providing possibilities of correlation between the faiths, she poses a remarkable thought for her time, "St. Issa, one of the most revered prophets of the Buddhists, Jesus Christ, the Man and God of all other men, the divine incarnation of the ideal, are they the same? Why not?" (Hall 122) There is a great deal of reference to Christianity and religion in Dubar-Nelson's poetry. In one poem, Cano- I Sing, the persona presents a reaffirmation of her faith:

My soul sinks, too, but I will not wail/ I know there's a God on high.... Injustice and tyranny threaten/ Where men and greed have their sway; They're lynching my sisters in Texas, They're flogging my sons on the farm; But I know that Omnipotence watches, That God has a far-flung arm (Hull 93).

Related Websites

Foster, Frances Smith (1993). Written By Herself: Literary Production by African American Women, 1796-1892. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indian University Press.

Hull, Gloria T. (1988). The Works of Alice Dunbar-Nelson. New York: Oxford Printing Press.

Robinson, William H. (1982). Critical Essays on Phillis Wheatley. Boston: GK, Hall and Company.

Robinson, William H. (1975). Phillis Wheatly in the Black America Beginnings. Detroit: Boadsiod.

Shields, John C. (Eds.). (1988). The Collected Works of Phillis Wheatley. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.